# Autonomous Spacecraft: Pioneering NASA and ESA’s Future Missions
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Chapter 1: The Necessity of Autonomous Spacecraft
Both NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) have set forth grand plans for upcoming missions, but these ambitions hinge on the development of autonomous spacecraft capable of independent operation.
Future missions can only succeed with spacecraft that can adapt to their environments. While autonomous vehicles are celebrated as the future of terrestrial transport, researchers in astrophysics are making strides in creating spacecraft that can respond to unpredictable conditions without human oversight. Once operational, these autonomous vehicles will tackle intricate tasks while managing unexpected challenges on distant planetary surfaces, traversing the vastness of space, or orbiting Earth.
NASA and ESA envision using autonomous spacecraft for planetary defense, Mars exploration, establishing a lunar colony, and addressing the Kessler syndrome. These objectives are incredibly challenging for humans due to safety issues, such as exposure to radiation, and the constant need for resources like food, water, and oxygen. Furthermore, human crews rely heavily on continuous communication with ground control, and the extensive data requirements of these future missions would overwhelm current technological capabilities. NASA experts cite “latency and bandwidth limitations in communications” as significant obstacles.
Section 1.1: Communication Challenges in Space
For instance, NASA's Voyager 1 takes approximately 20 hours to relay a signal back to Earth from the outer reaches of the solar system, which it reached in 2012. Thus, future NASA and ESA spacecraft must operate autonomously, with minimal human involvement and limited communication with mission control.
“The spacecraft designed for these demanding missions must possess the capability to assess their own condition and that of their environment to foresee and avoid dangerous situations, recover from internal malfunctions, and achieve crucial scientific goals amidst considerable uncertainty.”
— Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Subsection 1.1.1: How Autonomous Spacecraft Operate
Autonomous spacecraft utilize electromagnetic (EM) waves to perceive their surroundings, similar to self-driving cars. For instance, radar employs low-frequency EM waves, which can penetrate dust, rain, and snow, while lidar utilizes high-frequency EM waves that easily reflect off small particles, offering more detail. On Earth, autonomous vehicles rely on these technologies to navigate urban environments, while in space, they help detect distances from Earth, asteroids, and various geological features.
However, GPS technology is unfeasible in the vastness of space. Some scientists suggest using pulsars, which are neutron stars that emit regular high-intensity EM radiation, as a spatial reference system akin to GPS. Pulsars' consistent emissions can help establish an object's precise location. NASA's 2018 experiment on the International Space Station demonstrated that millisecond pulsars could be utilized for accurate navigation in space.
For example, Pioneer 10 and 11, launched in the early 1970s, included a plaque that indicated Earth's position relative to nearby pulsars, aiming to assist any intelligent extraterrestrial life in locating our planet.
Chapter 3: Mars Exploration and Beyond
The Mars 2020 rover, slated for launch in July 2020 with an expected landing in February 2021, is tasked with collecting 20 samples of rock and soil for future retrieval. Unlike its predecessor, Curiosity, the Mars 2020 rover will have greater autonomy, allowing it to execute tasks without constant communication with mission control.
Moreover, researchers at Stanford, including Marco Pavone, have conceptualized a mothership called the Phobos Surveyor, which will deploy small rovers, known as hedgehogs. If realized, these hedgehogs would traverse the Martian surface, gathering data and relaying it back to the mothership for optimized deployment strategies based on real-time findings.
Section 3.1: Addressing the Kessler Syndrome
The Kessler syndrome, proposed by Donald Kessler in 1978, refers to a potential scenario where space debris in low Earth orbit becomes so dense that future launches become infeasible. Although we are not at that stage yet, with approximately 34,000 known objects over 10 cm in orbit, concerns are rising.
Removing large debris would typically necessitate complicated manned missions. However, autonomous spacecraft could efficiently tackle this challenge. Swiss startup CleanSpace, backed by ESA, is developing a reusable spacecraft capable of targeting and eliminating space debris, marking a significant move toward mitigating the Kessler syndrome.
Chapter 4: The Future of Space Exploration
The ambitious future of space exploration encompasses sending astronauts to Mars, returning to the Moon, establishing a lunar colony, and exploring moons like Europa, among other endeavors. These goals can only be achieved with autonomous spacecraft, as they reduce the need for constant communication with ground control, extend mission durations, adapt swiftly to unforeseen circumstances, and can be trained to surpass human capabilities.
Autonomous systems like Astrobee, comprising three robots aboard the International Space Station, demonstrate the potential of robotic caretakers. They can perform various tasks autonomously, such as inventory management and cargo transportation, enhancing mission efficiency.
“Robots like Astrobee possess the ability to serve as caretakers for future spacecraft, ensuring systems operate smoothly while crew members are away.”
— NASA
As a result, NASA, ESA, and other global space agencies are investing billions into these technologies, with tangible advancements expected in the near future.