The Divine and Earthly Gifts of Tutankhamun's Treasures
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I recently attended an online lecture by Dr. Yukinori Kawae, an Egyptian archaeologist. When discussing ancient Egypt, Tutankhamun, the youthful king of the 18th dynasty, often comes to mind, especially his dazzling golden mask—many may have even seen it in person. It's breathtaking, isn’t it?
# The Iron of Tutankhamun's Dagger
In 2016, a significant revelation regarding Tutankhamun emerged: the dagger found with him was crafted from a meteorite. This blade consists of an iron-nickel alloy, scientifically speaking.
Tutankhamun served as pharaoh from 1333 BC to 1324 BC. During this era, only the Hittites in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) had the capability to produce steel. Steel, a combination of iron and a small amount of carbon, is known for its superior hardness and workability compared to natural iron. Although people across the globe utilized iron, they lacked the means to refine it into steel.
Nevertheless, a notable exception exists. If one possesses access to high-quality iron alloys, the narrative shifts. But where can such alloys be found?
Let’s broaden our perspective.
Visualize Earth as it drifts through space. What do you envision? A blue planet enveloped in water? A sphere shrouded in an atmosphere?
On a cosmic scale, Earth resembles a molten iron droplet. The planet's surface is coated with a thin layer of mineral quartz that has solidified over time, accompanied by a shallow layer of seawater and a trace of air.
If we could extract the Earth's core, we might unearth quality iron. While volcanoes emit molten material, the resulting lava on the surface is typically too impure. Thus, the only viable natural iron alloy comes from the cores of distant stars.
Asteroids and planets in space fragment into stardust, drawn into Earth's gravity and landing on its surface as meteorites. Among these, those rich in iron are categorized as meteoric iron. This type of iron frequently contains nickel. While iron-nickel alloys exhibit properties akin to steel, they are rare on Earth and challenging to synthesize artificially. To this day, Japan enforces strict export regulations on iron-nickel alloys due to their high demand in weaponry.
Consequently, we can conclude that Tutankhamun’s dagger was forged from meteorite iron—a true gift from the heavens.
# The Gold of Tutankhamun's Mask
Now, let’s discuss Tutankhamun's mask. Crafted from gold, lapis lazuli (blue), carnelian (red), obsidian (black), and turquoise (blue-green), I want to focus on gold in this discussion.
Gold is revered for its visual appeal, resistance to tarnish, and malleability, making it a prevalent material for art, a symbol of wealth, and currency worldwide.
In ancient Egyptian terminology, gold was referred to as "nub." The Egyptians sourced their gold from Nubia, which spans present-day southern Egypt to Sudan, where it exists in its natural metallic form. Gold’s inherent resistance to corrosion allows it to maintain its luster.
Interestingly, gold is also a byproduct of stellar explosions, but unlike iron, it remains relatively pure due to minimal chemical reactions. It is occasionally found combined with other metals, such as silver.
The gold utilized in Tutankhamun’s mask originated from Nubia—essentially, a gift from the Earth.
Curiously, it is estimated that Earth harbors less than 200,000 tons of gold. Given that each cubic meter of gold weighs around 20 tons, this equates to fewer than 10,000 cubic meters of gold—less than the volume of four standard Olympic swimming pools. That’s a limited amount of gold, leading to fierce competition for it, isn’t it?
# The Nature of Gold Alloys
As someone who suffers from metal allergies, I used to sport various shiny silver accessories, including inexpensive skull rings. Their poor quality likely contributed to my sensitivity.
While pure gold is unlikely to trigger allergies due to its lack of chemical reactivity, it is too soft for practical use in ornaments. Hence, gold has been alloyed with other metals since ancient times to enhance its durability. Such gold mixtures are known as colored gold. Tutankhamun's mask likely contained other metals to adjust its color and hardness.
While pure gold is hypoallergenic, colored gold can provoke allergies. For those of us with metal sensitivities, here are some insights regarding metals that generally do not cause allergic reactions. In summary, many colored gold alloys can trigger allergies.
- Yellow Gold: A combination of gold, silver, and copper; both silver and copper may lead to allergies.
- Green Gold: A blend of gold and silver; silver can cause allergic reactions.
- Red Gold: A mix of gold and copper; copper is known to cause allergies. Pink gold is a combination of copper and a trace of palladium.
- White Gold: Composed of gold and nickel or palladium; both of which can lead to allergic reactions. Many watch brands advertise as "nickel-free" on their timepieces.
- Purple Gold: A mixture of gold and aluminum; though aluminum is less likely to cause allergies, purple gold is uncommon.
- Blue Gold: Comprising gold and iron; iron is also considered less allergenic, though blue gold is still rare.
Consequently, colored gold is not suitable for me… What about platinum? Similar to gold, platinum resists chemical reactions, making it unlikely to provoke allergies. However, platinum is typically alloyed with palladium to enhance hardness, which can lead to allergic reactions.
Thus, we might steer clear of both gold and platinum and explore other metal families.
# Metal Families
Metals can be categorized into several families. As previously mentioned, gold belongs to the copper family, which includes silver and copper. Metals within the same family share similar characteristics.
Certain families are less likely to cause allergic reactions. These include titanium, vanadium, chromium, and platinum families. Within these groups, metals with appealing colors and suitable properties for modern technology are increasingly utilized in jewelry for individuals with metal sensitivities.
The titanium family comprises titanium, zirconium, and hafnium. The vanadium family includes niobium and tantalum. Tungsten belongs to the chromium family, while iridium is a representative of the platinum family. While these metals may not yet be widely available in jewelry stores, some artisans and vendors create rings from them (I personally wear a tantalum ring).
Iridium is particularly intriguing. Although iridium is costly, its color is not unique. It is believed that the iridium present on Earth originated from its core, with most of it coming from meteorites. For instance, the Chicxulub meteorite, which impacted the Yucatan Peninsula around 66 million years ago, is thought to have dispersed iridium globally, contributing to the extinction event of the dinosaurs.
Thus, iridium may serve as a celestial gift to humanity, much like the iron gifted to Tutankhamun.
# Nickel: The Devil's Copper
To conclude our exploration of metals, let’s discuss nickel, a metal mentioned several times throughout this discourse. The term "nickel" derives from the German "Kupfernickel," meaning devil’s copper, as its utility was not recognized in earlier times.
Today, nickel is an essential metal in modern society. Beyond its role in white gold, scientists have identified beneficial uses for copper-nickel alloys, known as white copper. This alloy is employed in Japan's 50 yen and 100 yen coins and the US five-cent coin. White copper is favored for coinage due to its silver-like appearance and rust resistance, and it can also be repurposed for producing iron-nickel alloys for military use in emergencies.
Thus, a metal with a name rooted in "devil" now supports nations alongside iron. The history of metals is undeniably fascinating, isn't it?
# A Final Note
For those interested in creating modern products reminiscent of ancient craftsmanship, I recommend watching this TED talk.